Effects of Human Footprint on Habitat Suitability

At the local scale where human footprint occurs, bird species show mixed responses to changes in habitat suitability in the Al-Pac FMA area. 

• Within forestry footprint, an equal number of bird species experienced positive and negative effects on habitat suitability. 
• Species such as Lincoln's Sparrow, which are associated with early seral forests, show improved habitat suitability within forestry footprints and tend to thrive in young harvest areas. Similarly, species like the Clay-colored Sparrow which prefer open habitats such as fields and grasslands also respond positively. The bird species that respond most negatively to forestry impacts are typically associated with mature or old forests (e.g., Cape May Warbler).
• Habitat suitability decreased for 60% of bird species in energy footprint. 
• Urban/industrial and transportation footprint types reduce the habitat suitability for the majority of bird species (86% and 89%, respectively) compared to the native habitat they replace and provide unsuitable habitat for a few species (-100% change for urban/industrial and -98% change for transportation). 
• Across all footprint types, some bird species show large increases in habitat suitability (>100%). These species are typically rare in native habitats but do well in disturbed areas or are generalists (e.g., Song Sparrow).

At the regional scale, overall human footprint has a mixed effect on habitat suitability on bird species, with 60% of species showing decreases and 40% showing increases.

• Forestry footprint has the greatest effects on regional habitat suitability for birds compared to other sectors in Al-Pac’s FMA area because it occupies the greatest area; effects ranged from a 22% loss (Black-throated Green Warbler) in habitat to a 18% gain (Alder Flycatcher) in habitat.
• Forestry has somewhat stronger negative effects (>10%) on habitat suitability for several bird species that are associated with the older upland forests where this sector operates (e.g., Western Tanager at -14% and Canada Warbler at -17%). 
• Forestry leads to large increases in the regional habitat suitability for several species of birds, including Clay-colored Sparrow (+9%) and Rose-breasted Grosbeak (+7%). These species either prefer recent harvest areas or prefer open habitats. 
• Energy development has the second-largest effect, with habitat suitability changes ranging from a 2% loss to a 4% gain. Species that benefit from energy footprint tend to nest or forage in clearings, well sites, and edge habitats,
• The limited extent of transportation and urban/industrial footprint results in minimal effects on regional bird habitat suitability.

At the local scale where human footprint occurs, habitat suitability is improved for seven mammal species, and lower for four in the Al-Pac FMA area. 

• Forestry has the smallest impact on mammal habitat among industrial sectors, improving suitability for 7 of 10 species. By creating open areas and young regenerating forests, it produces forage and berries used by species such as White-tailed Deer and Black Bear.
• Likewise, energy development improves habitat suitability for 7 of 10 mammal species. 
• Habitat suitability declines for most mammal species in urban/industrial (8 species) and transportation footprints (6 species), which may be the result of both habitat loss as well as avoidance of these footprint due to human activity
• Marten and Fisher lose habitat across nearly all sectors, with the exception of a slight increase in habitat suitability for Fisher (+3%) within the forestry footprint. These declines are likely linked to their reliance on older forest habitats.
• In contrast, generalist species like Coyote, and those that prefer shrubby or early successional habitats, such as Canada Lynx and Snowshoe Hare, experience habitat gains in all sector footprints.

At the regional scale, overall human footprint shows relatively little impact on mammal species in the Al-Pac FMA area.

• Most large mammals that the ABMI monitors with wildlife cameras are habitat generalists or use early seral habitat and show relatively little response to scattered human footprint at the regional scale.
• Forestry footprint results in small changes in habitat suitability for mammals at the regional scale, ranging from a 4% loss for Red Fox to a 5% gain in habitat for Coyote, as the younger regenerating forest attracts prey species and creates more opportunities to hunt. 
• Changes in habitat suitability due to energy footprint were generally small (-1% to +4%).
• The limited extent of the remaining urban/industrial and transportation footprints reduces their effects on regional mammal populations, with habitat suitability ranging from 0% to +2% of intact reference conditions.

At the local scale where human footprint occurs, habitat suitability is reduced for 71% of soil mite species in the Al-Pac FMA area. 

• Forestry footprint decreases habitat suitability for 59% of soil mite species, many of which are associated with older forests. For example, Atropacarus striculus and Gymnodamaeus ornatus are associated with older deciduous forests 
• Energy and transportation footprint reduces habitat suitability for 61% and 66% of soil mite species, respectively, while urban/industrial footprint reduces habitat suitability for all but ten soil mite species. Repeated soil disturbance in these footprints severely compacts soil and eliminates key habitat elements like leaf litter which negatively impact soil mites.

At the regional scale, overall human footprint lowers habitat suitability for 71% of soil mite species in the Al-Pac FMA area.

• Forestry footprint results in the greatest changes in habitat suitability at the regional scale compared to other sectors because it occupies the greatest area; effects ranged from a 25% loss in habitat (Epidamaeus sp. 1 DEW), to a gain of 17% (Zetomimus francisi). 
• Some of the strongest negative effects of forestry footprint are found in species, such as Gymnodamaeus ornatus (-9%) and Epidamaeus coxalis (-7%), that are associated with older deciduous stands. 
• Energy results in smaller impacts at the regional scale because of its smaller footprint, with the habitat suitability for most species within ±3% of intact reference conditions. However, 13 species—such as Banksinoma spinifera (+30%), which tends to thrive in human footprint—show gains in habitat at the regional scale.
• The limited extent of the other sectors reduces their effects on the regional habitat suitability for soil mites.

At the local scale where human footprint occurs, vascular plant species show mixed responses to changes in habitat suitability in the Al-Pac FMA area.

• Habitat suitability is improved for a little more than half of vascular plant species in forestry (52%), energy (53%) and transportation (55%) footprints. The disturbed soils and increased light availability created by these sectors benefit many plants, such as the Yellow Rattle which grows in open, sunny habitats with well-drained soils.
• In forestry footprint, of the species showing a decline in habitat suitability, 40 experienced a reduction of 50% or more. These species are often associated with shaded forest conditions.
• Urban/industrial footprint has the largest overall effect, with habitat suitability decreasing for 83% of vascular plant species. This may be due to extensive land conversion, soil sealing, and the loss of natural vegetation.
• In each footprint type there are several vascular plant species that have very large percent increases (>100%) in habitat suitability. Many of these species are pioneer species i.e. species that colonize new or recently disturbed environments and that do well in human footprint.

At the regional scale, overall human footprint lowers habitat suitability for 60% of vascular plant species in the Al-Pac FMA area.

• Forestry footprint has the greatest effects on regional habitat suitability for vascular plants compared to other sectors in the Al-Pac FMA area because it occupies the greatest area; effects range from a 16% (Clasping Leaved Twisted Stalk) loss in habitat to a 31% (Rough Cinquefoil) gain. 
• Forestry has somewhat stronger negative effects (>10%) on regional habitat suitability for five vascular plant species, including Lady Fern (-10%) and Oak Fern (-11%), which are associated with the older upland forests where this sector operates; these species are negatively affected by all footprint types. 
• Forestry produces large increases (>10%) in the regional habitat suitability for thirteen species of vascular plants, such as Cut Leaved Ragwort (28%). These species either prefer recent harvest areas or prefer open habitats and ground disturbances.
• While 53% of plants lost habitat at the regional scale due to energy footprint, declines were no more than 4% for any species, and 25 species showed gains of 10% or more.
• The limited extent of urban/industrial and transportation reduces their effects on the regional habitat suitability for vascular plants, with responses generally falling within -1% to +5% of intact reference conditions. Two species showed increases >10% as a result of transportation, Narrow Leaved Collomia (+23%) and Red Fescue (+12%).

At the local scale where human footprint occurs, habitat suitability is reduced for 80% of moss species in the Al-Pac FMA area. 

• In forestry footprint, habitat suitability is reduced for 68% of moss species. Many mosses are associated with habitat elements that are most abundant in old forests, such as downed wood and moist, shaded habitat.
• Habitat suitability decreases in energy and transportation footprint for more than 75% of moss species.
• Urban/industrial footprint reduces habitat suitability for 95% of moss species. Many species simply cannot live in this footprint type. 
• In general, mosses rely on stable, moist, shaded microhabitats like forest floors, decaying logs, and undisturbed soil surfaces, all of which can be negatively impacted by human footprint.
• One species, Bonfire Moss, shows a strong increase in habitat suitability in all sectors. Bonfire Moss is not strongly associated with forest stands and responds positively to all human footprint types.

At the regional scale, overall human footprint lowers habitat suitability for 80% of moss species in the Al-Pac FMA area.

• Forestry footprint has the greatest effects on regional habitat suitability for mosses compared to other sectors in the Al-Pac FMA area because it occupies the greatest area; effects range from a 20% (Red-stemmed Pipecleaner Moss) loss in habitat to a 24% (Convolute Screw Moss) gain.
• Forestry has somewhat stronger negative effects (>10%) on the regional habitat suitability for eight moss species, such as Heller's Notchwort (-14%), which are associated with older upland forests where this sector operates.
• Energy decreases habitat for a majority (85%) of species; however, habitat suitability did not decline by more than 3% for any species, and two species showed gains of 10% or more—Bonfire Moss (+19%) and Bird's Claw Screw Moss (+11%)—both of which respond positively to all human footprint types.
• The limited extent of the other sectors reduces their effects on the regional habitat suitability for mosses, with most responses within ±2% of intact reference conditions. An exception is transportation footprint, which improved habitat for Cord Moss (+5%), Convolute Screw Moss (+3%), and Schreberian Fork Moss (+3%).

At the local scale where human footprint occurs, habitat suitability is reduced for 86% of lichen species in the Al-Pac FMA area. 

• Habitat suitability is reduced for 80% of lichen species within forestry footprint and for more than 90% of species in the remaining sectors (energy, 93%; transportation, 95%; urban/industrial, 98%).
• In general, lichens are sensitive to changes in microclimate (local temperature, humidity) and amount of ambient rain and dust, all of which can be affected by human footprint.
• Habitat suitability increases in human footprint for several lichen species (e.g., British Soldiers, Peg-leg Soldiers, and Sheepish Pelt), mainly in forest harvest areas.

At the regional scale, overall human footprint lowers habitat suitability for 86% of lichen species in the Al-Pac FMA area.

• Forestry footprint has the greatest effects on regional habitat suitability for lichens compared to other sectors because it occupies the greatest area; effects range from a 30% loss (Lung Lichen) in habitat to a 9% gain (Peg-leg Soldiers).
• Forestry has somewhat stronger negative effects (>10%) on regional habitat suitability for 13 lichen species, such as Angel’s Hair (-26%), which are typically associated with older upland forests where this sector is most active.
• Energy has the next largest effect with effects ranging from a 3% loss to a 4% gain in habitat suitability. 
• The limited extent of the other sectors reduces their effects on the regional habitat suitability for lichens, with all responses falling within ±1% of intact reference conditions.